Colours
Often the most controversial of all the food additive categories, colours have been added to processed foods for decades to either replace colour lost in manufacture or simply to make products look more appealing, Whilst the use of colours in foods has a long history they have also been associated with food allergies or hypersensitivities leading to behaviour and learning problems in children dating back to the 1920’s. A specific hypothesis regarding this relationship was not developed until the 1970s when a physician Benjamin Feingold presented a paper based on his own clinical observations that hyperactivity and learning problems were due to certain foods and food additives. Whilst Feingold’s ideas were accepted by many parents, they were dismissed by professional associations, and it took until the publication of what is known as ‘The Southampton Study’ in 2007 for the scientific community to accept that some colours (along with the preservative sodium benzoate) could affect child behaviour. You can find out more about this study here (hyperlink to ). Since the publication of this study the use of the colours implicated in this study decreased rapidly in the UK and since 2008 it has been mandatory in the EU that foods containing these colours carry a warning label and more information on this can be found here (link to regulation section on colours).
Information on other resources related to colours in food can be found in the resources and links section of the website and a specific report on artificial food colours and children can be found at Additives – Colourings — First Steps Nutrition Trust
There are 34 colourings (some of which are groups of colours) permitted in the EU and 35 in the UK at the present time (the white pigment Titanium Dioxide is approved in the UK but not the EU). The azo dyes are grouped together but there are other artificial food dyes about which there have been some concerns that are not azo dyes and these link to specific information about those colours. Many dyes now in use have come from natural sources of pigments, although they can also be manufactured, and these are grouped as natural colours.
Azo dyes
Azo dyes have been used as food colours for many years due to their stability in most foodstuffs, the fact they are very cheap to produce and the intense colours they provide. Currently 13 azo dyes are permitted for food use in the EU. Whilst not all of these were included in the Southampton study which directly linked some colour additives to the activity and attention of children, all azo dyes are considered a potential health risk and you can find out more about the evidence linking azo dyes to ill health by clicking on the bold underlined azo dyes link.
Tartrazine (E102)
Tartrazine (E102) is also known as CI Food Yellow 4 and FD&C Yellow No. 5. Tartrazine provides food with a lemon yellow colour and is often used to colour foods with lemon or lime flavours. Tartrazine was one of the colours used in the Southampton studies so is included in what is often termed ‘The Southampton Six’ group of azo dyes so if used in foods or drinks they must carry a warning label.
Quinoline Yellow (E104)
Quinoline Yellow (E104) also known as CI Food Yellow 13. This dye produces a greenish yellow colour simulating the shade of pineapple and lemon and is often used in combination with other colours. This dye is available as a water-soluble dye or as an ‘aluminium lake’ which is water insoluble (find out about aluminium lakes here). This dye is also one of ‘The Southampton Six’ so if used in foods or drinks they must carry a warning label.
This dye not allowed at all in foods in the USA.
Sunset Yellow (E110)
Sunset Yellow (E110) is also known as CI Food Yellow 3, Orange Yellow S and FD&C Yellow No.6. This is an orange colour which is often used to provide an orange colour similar tom orange peel. It is available as both a water-soluble dye or as an aluminium lake which is water insoluble . Sunset Yellow is also in ‘The Southampton Six’ group of food dyes so if used in foods or drinks they must carry a warning label.
Carmoisine (E122)
Carmoisine (E122) also known as Azorubine and CI Food Red 3. This is bluish red colour used for raspberry and blackcurrant flavoured foods, often alongside other dyes, It is available as a water-soluble dye or insoluble aluminium lake. Carmoisine is also one of ‘The Southampton Six’ so if used in foods or drinks they must carry a warning label.
Amaranth (E123)
Amaranth (E123) also known as CI Food Red 9 and FD&C red No. 2. Amaranth dye provides a deep bluish-red shade typical of red berry foods and is also available as a water-soluble dye or an insoluble aluminium lake. Amaranth is only permitted in fish roe, spirit drinks and wine product cocktails in the EU and is not permitted at all in the USA.
Ponceau 4R (E124)
Ponceau 4R (E124) also known as Cochineal Red A, CI Food Red No 7, New coccine. Ponceau 4R is a bright red colour typical of strawberry, cherry or red-currant flavoured foods. It is water-soluble or available as an insoluble aluminium lake often used to colour cheese rinds. Ponceau 4R is also one of @the Southampton Six’ food dyes so if used in foods or drinks they must carry a warning label.
Allura Red (E129)
Allura Red (E129) also known as CI Food Red 17 and FD&C Red No. 40 is an orange-red colour that is weaker than other reds and is used in the USA for characteristic shade of blueberries. It is available as a water-soluble dye or the insoluble aluminium lake. This is also one of ‘The Southampton Six’ food dyes so if used in foods or drinks they must carry a warning label.
Patent Blue V (E131)
Patent Blue V (E131) also known as Acid Blue 3 is a bright blue colour that is mainly used in combination with tartrazine or quinoline yellow to provide a green colour. It is available as a water-soluble dye or insoluble aluminium lake. Another dye Blue VRS has a similar structure but is not allowed in foods.
Brilliant Blue (E133)
Brilliant Blue (E133) also known as CI Food Blue 2 or FD&C Blue 1 is a greenish blue colour which is often used for blending with tartrazine or quinoline yellow to give greens and with other colours to give browns or blacks. It is typically used in soft drinks, confectionery, baked goods, desserts and ice lollies. It is available as a water-soluble dye or an insoluble aluminium lake.
Brillant Black PN (E151)
Brillant Black PN (E151) also known as CI Food Black 1 is a blue-black colour on its own but is mainly used for blending to provide violet to purple shades. It is available as both a water-soluble dye and an insoluble aluminium lake.
Brown HT (E155)
Brown HT (E155) also known as CI Food Brown 3 and Chocolate Brown HT is a reddish brown colour dye which can be used at high temperature (hence the suffix HT). It is often used in the baking industry and in confectionery.
Litholrubine BK (E180)
Litholrubine BK (E180) also known as D&C Red No 7 is a water insoluble synthetic azo dye with a bright red colour used to colour the edible rind of cheeses, and it is only permitted in the EU for this purpose.
Carminic acid (E120)
Carminic acid (E120) also known as Carmine and CI Natural Red 4 is the red pigment obtained from the dried bodies of the coccid insect which lives on cactus plants in South America and Mexico. Cochineal is the term used for the dried bodies of the insects but is often used for both the insects and the colour extracted from them. Carmine pigment is the aluminium lake of carminic acid. Carmine has a long history of use as a food colour and provides a bright strawberry red shade, but is often used to provide clear orange hues in acid-based soft drinks. Carmine is however unstable in foods where the pH is less than 3.5. In the EU it is permitted in foods and drinks and used in meat products, beverages, jellies, confectionery, yoghurts and desserts. In the USA products containing carmine must carry an allergy statement. It cannot be used in products claiming they are suitable for vegetarian or vegan diets.
Erythrosine (E127)
Erythrosine (E127) also known as FD&C Red No 3 is a xanthene dye that has been much in the news since it has been recently banned for food use in the USA and is restricted for use in the EU to cocktail cherries, candied cherries and bigareaux cherries in syrup. It has a bright pink colour but is used to impart a light red colour to food. There have been a number of health concerns about this dye and as it is manufactured from boiling an alcoholic solution of fluorescein with iodine and sodium iodide the erythrosine molecule contains iodine which has also been linked to hyperthyroidism.
Indigo Carmine (E132)
Indigo Carmine (E132) also known as Indigotine, CI Food Blue or FD&C Blue No 2 is an indigoid dye used to provide  a dark bluish-red colour but is often used in combination with other dyes. It’s major limitation is that it is unstable to heat, light and common food ingredients and fades as pH increases. It is however used on confectionery, baked goods and ice lollies.
Green S (E142)
Green S (E142) also known as CI Food Green 4 and Brilliant Green BS is a synthetic dye which offers a greenish-blue colour, more blue than its name suggests. It is most commonly used to produce green shades with Tartrazine and Quinoline Yellow and was tradionally used for canned peas. It is also used in combination with other colours to produce brown and black shades. Green s is however difficult to synthesis and there are few manufacturers.
Caramel colours
Plain caramel (E150a)
Caustic sulphite caramel (E150b)
Ammonia caramel (E150c)
Sulphite ammonia caramel (E150d)
Caramel colours are dark brown to black liquids or powders that are manufactured by heat treating carbohydrates, often using reactants to promote the browning process. There are four classes of caramel colours:
Class I (E150a) plain caramel which is prepared with or without acids, bases or salts.
Class II (E150b) caustic sulphite caramel which is prepared with or without acids and alkalis in the presence of sulphite compounds
Class III (E150c) ammonia caramel prepared with or without acids or alkalis in the presence of ammonium compounds
Class IV sulphite ammonia caramel prepared with or without acids and alkalis in the presence of both sulphite and ammonium compounds.
The different processed result in caramels with different properties (e.g. ammonia caramels are compatible with products containing proteins; sulphite ammonia caramels are most compatible with the acidic environment of soft drinks).
These ‘burnt sugars’ are light to dark brown liquids or powders and are used for both bringing flavours and colour to a food. Where used for flavours they are considered ingredients, where used for colours they are additives. Caramel colours are used to add or restore colour to foods from brown red or yellow through brown to almost black. They are typically used for colouring drinks, both alcoholic and non-alcoholic, in baking products, sauces, soups and gravies.
Caramels are authorised for use in the EU with different ADI for the varying types, with greater restrictions on E150c. The use of caramel colours has been challenged due to the presence of some contaminants and high levels found in cola drinks in the USA.
Titanium Dioxide (E171)
Titanium Dioxide (E171) also known as CI Pigment White 6 is the only food additive allowed in the UK and not in the EU following post-Brexit review of the EFSA opinion. It is however unlikely to be used in the UK since foods marketed in Northern Ireland must comply with EU regulations. Titanium Dioxide is used to whiten foods or opacify them or to give a light background to other colours. It is commonly used in confectionery, coffee whiteners, sweets and chewing gum. It was previously the only true white colour permitted in the EU but was withdrawn in 2022 due to concerns over genotoxicity and intestinal inflammation. It is permitted in the USA but there are limits on its use.
Natural Colours
Curcumin (E100)
Curcumin (E100) is the principle pigment of turmeric, a spice obtained from the rhizomes of Curcuma longa which has been consumed for many thousands of years. Curcumin is obtained by solvent extraction from the plant and has a bright lemon-yellow colour when used in foods. It is soluble in oil but available in water-dispersible forms and is very stable to heat and acid. Curcumin however has poor stability to light and is sensitive to sulphur dioxide at levels in excess of 100ppm. In the EU it is permitted as a food colour in Group III: food colours with a maximum limit. It is typically used in smoked white fish, ice creams, sorbets, dairy products and some types of confectionery.
 Riboflavin (E101)
Riboflavin (E101) also known as lactoflavin and includes Riboflavin-5’-phosphate sodium.
Riboflavin is naturally present in green vegetables, milk, yeast an eggs and is often known as vitamin B2. It provides a bright lemon colour but is more frequently used as a vitamin. As a colour it has good stability to heat and acid pH but it has poor stability to light. It is permitted in the EU in Group II: colours allowed quantum satis in foods.
Chlorophyll (E140) also known as CI Natural Green 3, Magnesium chlorophyll and Magnesium phaeophytin and includes Chlorophyllin, also known as CI Natural Green 5, Sodium chlorophyllin and Potassium chlorophyllin.
Chlorophyll (E140) also known as CI Natural Green 3, Magnesium chlorophyll and Magnesium phaeophytin and includes Chlorophyllin, also known as CI Natural Green 5, Sodium chlorophyllin and Potassium chlorophyllin. The oil soluble chlorophylls are extracted from edible plant material including grass, lucerne, nettles and algae. Alkaline saponification produce the water soluble chlorophyllins. These naturally derived colours provide dull olive-green hues to food so do not have widespread use. They are less stable to light and acid as the copper complexes. They are permitted in the EU in Group II: food colours authorised as quantum satis.
Copper complexes of chlorophyll (E141) also known as CI Natural Green 3, Copper chlorophyll and Copper phaeophytin and also includes Copper complexes of chlorophyllins also known as CI Natural Green 5, Sodium copper chlorophyllin and Potassium copper chlorophyllin.
Copper complexes of chlorophyll (E141) also known as CI Natural Green 3, Copper chlorophyll and Copper phaeophytin and also includes Copper complexes of chlorophyllins also known as CI Natural Green 5, Sodium copper chlorophyllin and Potassium copper chlorophyllin. Copper chlorophylls are obtained by adding a copper salt to edible extracts from plants including grass, lucerne (alfalfa) and nettle. Alkaline saponification of extracts followed by reaction with copper salt produces the copper chlorophyllins. These chemically modified chlorophylls produce a blue-green colour for foodwhich is brighter and more stable than non-coppered chlorophyll. They are permitted in the EU in colours Group II: authorised as quantum satis.
 Vegetable carbon (E153)Â
Vegetable carbon (E153) also known as vegetable black is manufactured by heating vegetable material to a high temperature in the absence of air. Wood, cellulose residue or coconut shell can be used but the main source is peat. It is a black powder that is insoluble in water or organic solvents and is used to darken the colours of foodstuff and often in liquorice. It is insert, odourless and tasteless but it is difficult to handle and use as a powder so is often made into a paste. It is however rarely used as the colour produced is often grey shades. They are permitted in the EU in colours Group II: authorised as quantum satis.
Carotenes (E160a(i)) also known as β–carotene or CI Food orange 5, includes Plant carotenes E160(ii)), β-carotene from Blakeslea trispora, (E160(iii)) and (E160(iv)) Algal carotenes.
Plant carotenes are a mixture of natural products obtained by solvent extraction of edible plants and vegetables, with β-carotene being the majority constituent of this mixture. Β-carotene can also be produced by fermentation of Blakeslea triaspora and in the EU it can be made from strains of the algae Dunaliella salina.It can also be made as a nature identical pigment by chemical synthesis and all of these provide orange and yellow shade when used in food. β-carotene is a precursor of vitamin A and has a long history of human consumption. Carotenes are sensitive to oxidation when exposed to light so foods and drinks coloured with carotenes may have vitamin C and vitamin E added to act as antioxidants. They are permitted in the EU in colours Group II: authorised as quantum satis.
Annatto (E160b(i)) also known as CI Natural Orange 4 and (E160b(ii)) Annatto Norbixin
Annatto (E160b(i)) also known as CI Natural Orange 4 and (E160b(ii)) Annatto Norbixin are extracted from the tropical bush Bixa Orellana L which has long been used as a spice in Central and South America. The bush and the pigment are both known as annatto and bixin is the principle carotenoid pigment extracted from the seeds. This naturally derived colour provides orange colours to food and is stable to heat and acid. In the EU it is permitted in a range of food with individual maxima in each case. It is typically used in yellow fats, cheese, smoked fish, snacks and desserts.
Paprika extract (E160c) also known as Paprika oleoresin, Capsanthin and Capsorubin
Paprika extract (E160c) also known as Paprika oleoresin, Capsanthin and Capsorubin is the colour obtained from the sweet red pepper Capsicum annuum L using a solvent extraction process to prepare an oleoresin. Paprika is well recognised as a spice and is a popular ingredient in many recipes with a long history of consumption. The pigments are oil soluble but water-soluble preparations are available and it is stable to heat and pH change. Paprika extract contains the carotenoid pigments capsorubin and capsanthin and provides a deep orange colour and a mild spice flavour. Carotenoids are sensitive to oxidation when exposed to light and high doses may introduce too much flavour. They are permitted in the EU in colours Group II: authorised as quantum satis.
Synthetic lycopene (E160d(i)), Lycopene from red tomatoes (E160d(ii)) also known as Natural yellow 27, (E160d (iii)) Lycopene from Blakeslea trispora
Synthetic lycopene (E160d(i)), Lycopene from red tomatoes (E160d(ii)) also known as Natural yellow 27, (E160d (iii)) Lycopene from Blakeslea trispora are all carotenoids that can be extracted from red tomatoes or the algae Blakeslea trispora with solvent extraction. The commercial preparations are a mix of carotenoids with lycopene being the principal constituent. Lycopene provides orange and red colours, is stable to heat and pH and has a long history of consumption. It is typically used in soups, sauces, bakery goods, ice lollies and processed cheese. The colour is approved for use in the EU in a wide range of foods subject to specific quantitative limits and EFSA have allocated an ADI of 0-0.5mg/kg body weight.
B-apo-8’-carotenal C30 (E160e) also known as CI Food Orange 6
B-apo-8’-carotenal C30 (E160e) also known as CI Food Orange 6 is a carotenoid widely distributed in nature, particularly in spinach and citrus fruits and commercial amounts are synthesised. It imparts an intense yellow-orange colour to orange-red foods and has good heat and pH stability but is prone to photo-oxidation if exposed to light and so an antioxidant such as ascorbic acid may also be included. It is typically used in soft drinks, confectionery and desserts. This also has vitamin A activity and in the EU has an ADI of 0-0.5mg/kg body weight and is in Group III: food colours with combined maximum limit.
Canthaxanthin (E160g) also known as CI Food orange 8
Canthaxanthin (E160g) also known as CI Food orange 8 is found naturally in crustaceans and as a result in salmon and trout flesh and flamingo feathers. Commercial cantaxanthin is chemically synthesised and the deep violet crystals are prone to oxidation. It is not permitted in foods in the EU but is included in the Regulations as it can be used in medicinal products.
Lutein (E161b) also known as mixed carotenoids, Xanthophylls and Tagetes
Lutein (E161b) also known as mixed carotenoids, Xanthophylls and Tagetes are a class of carotenoids obtained by solvent extraction from edible fruits and plants including grass, lucerne (alfalfa) and marigolds (Tagetes erecta). E161b is an oil-soluble pigment consisting of a mixture of carotenoids with lutein being the principle constituent. This provides a yellow colour to foods and is heat and pH stable, but like other carotenoids is sensitive to oxidation when exposed to light. It is often used in cloudy citrus beverages, sweets, marzipan and mayonnaise. In the EU it has an ADI of 0-1mg/kg body weight and is includes in Food colours: Group III with a combined maximum limit.
Beetroot Red (E162) also known as Beet red and Betanin
Beetroot Red (E162) also known as Beet red and Betanin is obtained from the roots of natural strains of red beet (Beta vulgaris) by pressing the crushed beet to express the juice or by aqueous extraction. The main colouring principal is betacyanins and which betanin is a major component. Beetroot red is used to impart a blue-pink colour to foods but is fairly sensitive to heat, light and water and extremely sensitive to sulphur dioxide. It is typically used in ice cream, dairy products, dessert mixes and icings. It is included in the EU Food colours: Group II authorised to be used quantum satis.
Anthocyanins (E163) also known as Grape skin extract, Grape colour extract and Enocianina
Anthocyanins (E163) also known as Grape skin extract, Grape colour extract and Enocianina are mainly red pigments responsible for the colours of many edible fruits and berries. They are usually obtained by aqueous extraction often using sulphurous acid. The major commercial source is grape skins but anthocyanins are also produced commercially from elderberries, red cabbage and black carrots. These naturally occurring pigments are used to impart red or purple colours to foods and the colour will depend on the pH of the product with the colour progressing from red to blue as the PH increases. These water soluble colours are consumed in much greater amounts in the diet than they would be as an additive and are used in soft drinks, jams, sweets, fruit toppings and sauces. It is included in the EU Food colours: Group II authorised to be used quantum satis.
Calcium carbonate (E170) also known as CI Pigment white 18
Calcium carbonate (E170) also known as CI Pigment white 18 is a naturally occurring mineral in chalk, limestone and marble and is used as colour as well as as a source of carbon dioxide in raising agents, as an anticaking agent , a source of calcium and a texturizing agent. Calcium carbonate is readily available and inexpensive but it is not a bright white colour like Titanium dioxide (E171). It is used in chewing gum and bread and is included in the EU Food colours: Group II authorised to be used quantum satis.
Iron oxides and hydroxides (E172) includes Iron oxide yellow, Iron oxide red and Iron oxide black
Iron oxides and hydroxides (E172) includes Iron oxide yellow, Iron oxide red and Iron oxide black. These are produced by the controlled oxidation of iron in the presence of water and can produce colours from yellow to black with the precise colour controlled by the manufacturing process. They provide basic yellow, red or black colours to foodstuffs and are highly stable, particularly to light. They are used in fish paste, canned goods and confectionery. They are included in the EU Food colours: Group II authorised to be used quantum satis.
Aluminium (E173)
Aluminium (E173) is only permitted as a colour to the outside coating of sugar confectionery for the decoration of cakes and pastries.
Silver (E174)
Silver (E174) is used to cover chocolate and confectionery and to provide coloured particles in liqueurs and is only permitted in the EU for these purposes.
Gold (E175)
Gold (E175) is used to gold leaf wrap chocolate and as tiny pieces in confectionery and liqueurs and is limited to these uses in the EU.
Ferrous lactate (E585)
Ferrous lactate (E585) is made by reacting ferrous sulphate with calcium or sodium lactate and is used to preserve and darken the colour of olives. It becomes darker and less soluble in water on exposure to air so it must be kept in a tightly sealed opaque container. It is only permitted for use in olives in the EU to a maximum of 150mg/kg.
